Aurora

Aurora (phenomenon), luminous atmospheric phenomenon occurring most frequently above 60° North or South latitude, but also in other parts of the world. It is named specifically, according to its location, aurora borealis (northern lights) or aurora australis (southern lights). The term aurora polaris, polar lights, is a general name for both.

The aurora consists of rapidly shifting patches and dancing columns of light of various hues. Extensive auroral displays are accompanied by disturbances in terrestrial magnetism and interference with radio, telephone, and telegraph transmission. The period of maximum and minimum intensity of normal auroras seems to be almost exactly opposite that of the sunspot cycle, which is an 11-year cycle, so the intensity of the auroras is normally low while the sun is very active. Huge displays that occur farther from the earth’s poles than normal, however, occur more often while the sun is very active.

Cloud

Cloud, condensed form of atmospheric moisture consisting of small water droplets or tiny ice crystals. Clouds are the principal visible phenomena of the atmosphere. They represent a transitory but vital step in the water cycle, which includes evaporation of moisture from the surface of the earth, carrying of this moisture into higher levels of the atmosphere, condensation of water vapor into cloud masses, and final return of water to the surface as precipitation.

Topics:

• Formation and Effects
• Classification

High Clouds

These are clouds composed of ice particles, found at average levels of 8 km (5 mi) or more above the earth. The family contains three principal genera. Cirrus clouds are isolated, feathery, and threadlike, often with hooks or tufts, and are arranged in bands. Cirrostratus clouds appear as a fine, whitish veil; they occasionally exhibit a fibrous structure and, when situated between the observer and the moon, produce halo phenomena. Cirrocumulus clouds form small, white, fleecy balls and wisps, arranged in groups or rows. Cirrocumulus and cirrus clouds are popularly described by the phrase “mackerel scales and mares' tails.”

Middle Clouds

These are clouds composed of water droplets and ranging in altitude from about 3 to 6 km (about 2 to 4 mi) above the earth. Two principal genera are included in the family. Altostratus clouds appear as a thick, gray or bluish veil, through which the sun or moon may be seen only diffusely, as through a frosted glass. Altocumulus clouds have the appearance of dense, fleecy balls or puffs somewhat larger than cirrocumulus. The sun or moon shining through altocumulus clouds may produce a corona, or colored ring, markedly smaller in diameter than a halo.

Low Clouds

These clouds, also composed of water droplets, are generally less than 1.6 km (1 mi) high. Three principal forms comprise this group. Stratocumulus clouds consist of large rolls of clouds, soft and gray looking, which frequently cover the entire sky. Because the cloud mass is usually not very thick, blue sky often appears between breaks in the cloud deck. Nimbostratus clouds are thick, dark, and shapeless. They are precipitation clouds from which, as a rule, rain or snow falls. Stratus clouds are sheets of high fog. They appear as flat, white blankets, usually less than 610 m (2000 ft) above the ground. When they are broken up by warm, rising air, the sky beyond usually appears clear and blue.

Clouds With Vertical Development

Clouds of this type range in height from less than 1.6 km (1 mi) to more than 13 km (8 mi) above the earth. Two main forms are included in this group. Cumulus clouds are dome-shaped, woolpack clouds most often seen during the middle and latter part of the day, when solar heating produces the vertical air currents necessary for their formation. These clouds usually have flat bases and rounded, cauliflowerlike tops. Cumulonimbus clouds are dark, heavy-looking clouds rising like mountains high into the atmosphere, often showing an anvil-shaped veil of ice clouds, false cirrus, at the top. Popularly known as thunderheads, cumulonimbus clouds are usually accompanied by heavy, abrupt showers.

An anomalous, but exceptionally beautiful, group of clouds contains the nacreous, or mother-of-pearl, clouds, which are 19 to 29 km (12 to 18 mi) high, and the noctilucent clouds, 51 to 56 km (32 to 35 mi) high. These very thin clouds may be seen only between sunset and sunrise and are visible only in high latitudes.

The development of the high-altitude airplane has introduced a species of artificial clouds known as contrails (condensation trails). They are formed from the condensed water vapor ejected as a part of the engine-exhaust gases.

Dam

Dam, structure that blocks the flow of a river, stream, or other waterway. Some dams divert the flow of river water into a pipeline, canal, or channel. Others raise the level of inland waterways to make them navigable by ships and barges. Many dams harness the energy of falling water to generate electric power. Dams also hold water for drinking and crop irrigation, and provide flood control.

See also:

• Why People Build Dams
• Types of Dams
• Ecological Impact